Question.1. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food production that were the causes of early urbanisation?
Answer. The development of Mesopotamia from a prosperous village to a city proves that natural fertility and high levels of food production were not the only factors responsible for urbanisation. There were other factors as well that caused urbanisation, two of which have been explained below.

1. Growing demands: Besides food, a growing population needs several other goods and commodities (such as weapons, agricultural tools an, potteries.) to fulfil their needs. For this, an agrarian village had to either produce these goods on its own or rely on other villages for these needs via trade. This definitely calls for the need of manufacturing facilities within the village along with well-developed trade network and transportation. Thus, it can be said that the fulfilment of growing demands facilitated urbanisation if Mesopotamia.
2. Division of labour: Over time, production expanded in order to meet growing demands; this resulted in different people specialising in specific tasks. This, in turn, helped them to tap and fulfil the growing demands efficiently. However, to sustain this division of labour, a proper organisational framework was essential. This framework included a class of men who could supervise the work of others. Thus, this organisation created a class of administrators and supervisors along with the already existing class of labourers.

Question.2. Which of the following were necessary conditions and which the causes, of early urbanisation, and which would you say were the outcome of the growth of cities:

(a) highly productive agriculture,
(b) water transport,
(c) the lack of metal and stone,
(d) the division of labour,
(e) the use of seals,
(f) the military power of kings that made labour compulsory?

Answer. Necessary conditions for urbanisation:

(a) Highly productive agriculture
(b) Water transport
(c) The division of labor

Causes of early urbanization:

(a) Lack of metal and stones
(b) The use of the seals
(c) The military pow er of the kings made labor compulsory.

The outcome of the growth of cities:

(a) Development of trade
(b) Development of transport system
(c) Development of artistic culture

Question.3. Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?
Answer. The large number of people in Mari was engaged in farming or pastoral activities.
The herders used to exchange animals, leather, meat and cheese with farmers in return for grains and metal tools. Generally they did not possess any threat to the town people.

Question.4. Why would the early temple have been much like a house?
Answer. The earliest settlers in the Southern Mesopotamia began to make temples at some specific places in their cities.

1. The earliest temples were made of unbaked bricks and they served as the residences of various gods like Moon God of Ur, Innana the Goddess of Love.
2. Gradually the size of the temples got enlarged and several rooms were constructed around open courtyards.
3. The people of the villages and cities used to offer grains, fishes, curd and other commodities to God. God was also considered to be the theoretical owner of the agricultural resources, fishers and also the herds of the local communities.
4. Gradually activities like oil pressing, weaving, spinning and grain grinding was also started to be done in the temples. This led to the rise of temples as the commercial centers.
5. The activities such as maintaining of the records, distribution of the grains and other activities were also supervised from the temples.

Question.5. Of the new institutions that came into being once city life had begun, which would have depended on the initiative of the king?
Answer. Once the city life began, several new institutions came into being. Some of the most
prominent institutions can be grouped as:

• Social institutions – Nuclear families and marriage
• Political institutions – Administrative machinery, army and messaging system
• Economic institutions – Trade and tax
• Cultural institutions – Temples, schools and tablet writing

Out of the above mentioned institutions, the ones that depended on the initiative of the king have been discussed below.

1. Economic Institutions
   • Trade: Trade was the means by which raw materials and finished products that were not available but were needed could be attained. Mesopotamia did not possess all resources and was in a need to establish trade links with Assyria, Babylonia and Sumeria. To conduct trade, proper roadways and waterways had to be built and maintained. This was indeed not possible without the initiative and aid of the King. The king also appointed officers who could inspect the incoming goods and levy a charge on those goods.
   • Taxation: Taxation served as a potent source of revenue for Mesopotamia. This important sector was planned and executed by the central authority or the King to ensure its effective organisation. To ensure a perennial source of revenue, tax was imposed on almost every commodity and service such as fishing, farming and trading.
2. Cultural Institutions:
   • Temples: Several Mesopotamian towns had evolved and developed around temples. People of these temple towns associated themselves with the temples. Every ruler wanted to gain control of the temples by taking the opportunity of this association. Immense wealth and energy were spent on the beautification of the holy structures. Such works conducted by the King made him popular among the masses and helped him earn a high status and the authority to command the community too.
3. Political Institutions: For the proper management of the city, the King had to take several initiatives. To achieve so, he maintained an army for the protection of the city and its people. Maintenance of law and order in the city was the army’s primary function. A proper network of messaging was introduced by the King that facilitated uninterrupted relations with other cities and settlements.

Question.6. What do ancient stories tell us about the civilisation of Mesopotamia?
Answer. Archaeology began in the Mesopotamia around 1840s and there were several crucial sites that were excavated.

1. Some of the important sites like Uruk and Mari were excavated for almost a decade as there was lot of discoveries from this site.
2. There have been discoveries of hundreds of Mesopotamian buildings, ornaments, potteries, tools, statues, seals and thousands of written documents.

There are several stories associated with the Mesopotamian Civilisation. As per the Bible that purpose of the flood was to destroy the life forms from the earth.

1. How ever God chose a man called Noah for protection of living creatures on the Earth so that the life continues on the Earth.
2. Noah collected the pair of all the available species of plants and animals and put them in his boat and was able to save them from being extinct.