Very Short Answer Type Questions [1 Mark]

Question.1. What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to the French Revolution in Europe?
Answer. It led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.

Question.2. What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries?
Answer. The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. They proclaimed that it was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its decisions.

Question.3. What is the meaning of concentration camps?
Answer. Concentration camps are prisons where people are detained and tortured without due process of law.

Question.4. Name the Treaty of 1832 that recognised Greece as an independent nation.
Answer. Treaty of 1832: Constantinople

Question.5. Name the event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe in 1830-1848?
Answer. The Greek War of Independence in 1821.

Question.6. What was the main aim of revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815?
Answer. The main aim of revolutionaries of Europe was to oppose monarchial forms of government.

Question.7. Who remarked “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”.
Answer. Duke Metternich

Question.8. Who was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871?
Answer. Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871.

Question.9. Who was proclaimed the King of United Italy in 1861?
Answer. Victor Emmanuel-II

Question.10. Who was Frederic Sorrieu?
Answer. Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who visualised a world, made up of democratic and social republics, and put his dream down in a series of four prints.

Question.11. What is referred to as Absolutism?
Answer. Unrestricted, despotic and authoritarian monarchial system of rule or government is referred to as absolutism.

Question.12. Define Nation.
Answer. A body of people who are united by same past, culture, political system and common interests can be defined as a Nation.

Question.13. What was the concept of a nation-state?
Answer. The concept of a nation-state was one in which people and rulers of land came together to develop a sense of common identity and shared history.

Question.14. Who hosted the Congress of Vienna in 1815?
Answer. Duke Metternich hosted the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

Question.15. What was main aim of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815?
Answer. The main aim of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was to undo the changes brought about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.

Short Answer Type Questions [3 MARKS]

Question.1. Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after 1815.
Answer. Three beliefs of conservatism that emerged after 1815 were:

1. Established and traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, the Church, property and family should be preserved.
2. They believed in the modernization of the traditional institution to strengthen them, rather than returning to the society of pre-revolutionary days.
3. Also they believed that abolition of feudalism and serfdom and replacing it with a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy and a dynamic economy could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe.

Question.2. Explain the contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification.
Answer. Contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification. Nationalist feelings started spreading
amongst the middle class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite different parts of German confederation into a nation state to have an elected parliamentarian government. However, this liberal movement was repressed by the combined forces of monarchy and military supported by Prussian landowners.

Prussian Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, took the responsibility of national unification with the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy. Under his leadership he fought three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification of Germany was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.

Question.3. Explain any three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Answer. The three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in 18th and 19th centuries in Poland:

1. Emphasis on vernacular language: Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. The use of the Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. For example, In Poland, following armed rebellion against Russian rule, Polish was used for church gatherings and religious instruction. As a result, a number of priests and bishops were put in jails or sent to Siberia as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
2. Emphasis on collection of local folklore: It was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to carry the modern nationalist message to the large audience who were mostly illiterate.
3. Use of music to keep the nationalist feeling alive: For example, Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

Question.4. Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe.
Answer.

1. The year following 1815, was the period of revolutionaries. Most of the revolutionaries were committed to oppose monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and freedom.
2. One such prominent revolutionary was “Giuseppe Mazzini”, an Italian revolutionary. Mazzini also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part in the struggle for freedom. Ele strongly believed in the unification of Italy as a single unified republic which could be the basis of Italian liberty.
3. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of a democratic republic frightened the Conservatives. His ideas also influenced the revolutionaries of Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.

Question.5. Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered.
Answer. Three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered were:

1. The Napoleonic Code —It finished all the privileges based on birth and established equality before law and secured the right to property.
2. He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
3. He introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and common national currency to facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one place to another.

Question.6. Explain any three causes of conflict in the ‘Balkan area’ after 1871.
Answer. The nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans due to the following reasons:

1. Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose inhabitants were known as the Slavs. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman empire.
2. After the decline of the Ottoman empire and the growth of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, the region became very explosive. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence.
3. As the different nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of others.
4. Balkan also became the scene of big power rivalry. Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungry — all big powers were keen in countering the hold of other powers. This ultimately turned Balkan into a war region which eventually provided a minor cause for the First World War.

Question.7. How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain.
Answer. The reactions of the local population to the French rule were mixed. Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. As new administrative arrangements did not go hand in hand with political freedom, enthusiasm turned into hostility. Increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription into the French armies to conquer the rest of Europe, outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes.

Question.8. Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by the new commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe.
Answer. In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of stateimposed restrictions on movement of goods and capital.

1. But in the 19th century Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities a confederation of 39 states. Each possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.
2. A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 custom barriers and pay 5% duty at each one of them.
3. As each region had its own system of weights and measures this involved time-consuming calculations.
4. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic growth and exchange by the new commercial classes who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing free movement of goods, people and capital.

Question.9. How had the female figures become an allegory of the nation during nineteenth century in Europe? Analyse.
Answer. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries portrayed nations as female figures. The female form, that was chosen to personify the nation, did not stand for any particular woman in real life. Rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation in concrete form. That is, the female figure became the allegory of the nation.

In France, she was named Marianne — a popular Christian name and in Germany, Germania.

Germania wears a crown of oak leaves as the German oak stands for heroism. The characteristics of Marianne were drawn from those of Liberty and Republic —the red cap, the tricolour and cockade.

Question.10. Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s.
Answer. Following are the causes of economic hardships in Europe during 1830s:

1. Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment. Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
2. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine- made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile production.
3. In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.

Long Answer Type Questions [5 MARKS]

Question.1. What did Liberal Nationalism stand for? Explain any four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere.
Answer. Liberalism or Liberal Nationalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere are:

1. Liberalism stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction. For example, Napoleon’s administration was a confederation of 29 states, each of these possessed its own currencies, weight and measures. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange.
2. Liberal Nationalists argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital.
3. In 1834, a customs union or ” zollverein” was formed. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
4. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interest to national unification.

Question.2. “Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.” Support the statement.
OR
State any three provisions of the Civil Code of 1804.
OR
Explain any three features of the Napoleonic code.
OR
Explain any five social and administrative reforms introduced by Napolean in regions under his control.
Answer. Napoleon had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field in order to make the whole system rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 is usually known as the Napoleonic Code.

1. The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on birth, establishing equality before law and securing the right to property.
2. Administrative divisions were simplified.
3. Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues (abuse of manorial lords).
4. In towns, guild restrictions were removed.
5. Transport and communication systems were improved.
6. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.
7. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to realize that uniform laws, standardised weights and measures and a common national currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.

Question.3. How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain.
OR
Describe the role of culture in shaping the feelings of nationalism in Europe from 1830 to the end of 19th century.
OR
How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the ‘nation’ in Europe? Explain with examples.
Answer. Culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the growth of nationalism.

1. Role of culture was important in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, music etc. helped in developing and expressing nationalist feelings. Romanticism was a cultural movement that led to the development of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science and instead focussed on emotions and intuition.
2. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries portrayed nations as female figures. The female form, that was chosen to personify the nation, did not stand for any particular woman in real life. Rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation in concrete form. That is, the female figure became the allegory of the nation. In France, she was named Marianne—a popular Christian name and in Germany, Germania.
3. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
4. Romantics such as the German philosopher Herder claimed that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularized.

Question.4. Explain any five economic hardships that Europe faced in the 1830s.
OR
“The decode of 1830 has brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the statement with arguments.
Answer. Following are the causes of economic hardships in Europe during 1830s:

1. Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were more seekers of jobs than employment.
2. Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
3. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile production.
4. In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
5. The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.

Question.5. Describe any three steps taken by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
OR
Describe the events of French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to other parts of Europe.
OR
Describe any five measures which were introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
Answer. The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was under the rule of an absolute monarch.

When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity and nationhood. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag, the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.

French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:

1. The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
2. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
3. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
4. Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
5. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.
6. They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.

Question.6. How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European States after 1815? Explain with examples.
Answer. During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal nationalists underground.

1. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Revolutionary ideas were spread by opposing monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and freedom.
2. Most of the revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
3. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary bom in Geneva in 1807. He was a member of the Secret Society of the Carbonari. He attempted a revolution in 1831 and was sent into exile.
4. He had set up two more underground societies, namely, Young Italy (1832) in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. The members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and Germany.
5. He opposed monarchy and small states and kingdoms and dreamt of a Democratic Republic. He believed the unification of Italy alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

Question.7. How was the Habsburg Empire a patchwork of many different regions and people in Europe? Explain.
Answer. Habsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different regions and people as the Alpine regions— the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland were part of it. The Italian speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia were also included in it. Different languages and dialects were spoken by different sections of society throughout the empire. For example, in Bohemia, the nobility or the aristocrats spoke German’ and Lombardy and Venetia were the provinces where Italian was spoken. Polish was the language of aristocracy in Galicia. Besides, these three dominant groups, there also lived peasantry, within the boundaries of Empire such as Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania. Loyalty to the emperor was the only tie binding these groups that were so different from each other.

Question.8. Describe the process of unification of Germany.
Answer. Unification of Germany: In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states ceased to exist during the Napoleonic wars. At the end of the war, there were still 39 independent states in Germany. Prussia was most powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.

1. Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who had tried to unite the different regions of the German federation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
2. In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to vote for an All German National Assembly. Their representatives met at Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as emperor.
3. The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by combined forces of the monarchy, the military and the ‘Junkers’.
4. Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck led the movement for unification of Germany. Bismarck carried out this process with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy. He fought three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.
5. Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of princes of German states, representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of Versailes and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German Emperor.

Question.9. Explain the process of unification of Italy.
Answer.

• Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over dynastic states and the multinationals Hamsburg Empire. Italy was divided into seven states. Italian language did not have one common form.
• Guiseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy. He formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his goals. He believed Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and had to be forged into a single unified republic.
• During 1830s, Mazzini sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. As uprisings in 1831 and 1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
• Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. He was the chief minister, who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces. Even Guiseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched towards South Italy and the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, and with the help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.

Question.10. Describe the process of Unification of Britain.
OR
How has Britain come into existence? Explain.
Answer. Nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe.

1. Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden uprising or revolution. It was the result of a long drawn out process.
2. There was no British nation prior to 18th century. The inhabitants of British Isles were ethnic ones — English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Though each had their own culture and political traditions, the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power and expanded its influence over other nations, such as Scotland.
3. The British Parliament was dominated by its English members. They tried to suppress Scotland’s distinct culture and political institutions. They could neither speak their language nor could they wear their national dress. A large number of them were driven out of their homeland.
4. In 1688, through a bloodless revolution the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy and became the instrument to set up a nation-state at its centre.
5. By the Act of Union in 1707, Scotland was incorporated in the United Kingdom. Though the Irish Catholics were against a union with England, Ireland was forcibly incorporated in United Kingdom in 1801.
6. Thus it was parliamentary action and not revolution or war that was the instrument through which the British nation was formed.
7. A new ‘British Nation’ was formed through propagation of English culture. The symbols of the New Britain—”the British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God save our noble King) and the English language” were promoted, and the older nations became the subordinate partners in the Union.

Question.11. Write briefly about the political conditions in Europe in the 1870s.
Answer. The following were the conditions in Europe in the 1870s.

1. By the last quarter of the 19th century, liberaldemocratic sentiment could not be maintained by the nationalists.
2. Nationalism was now sought to have narrow aims and beliefs with limited means.
3. Trust on each other and tolerance among the nationalist groups disappeared.
4. They just wanted to accomplish their aims at the cost of others.
5. Even the nationalist aspirations of the subject people were manipulated towards the fulfilment of their imperialistic goals.
6. A new definition of nationalism emerged which created havoc in the world order. (any five)

Question.12. Discuss the role played by the women in nationalist struggles.
Answer. Women played a vital role in the nationalist struggles around the world.

1. Women from many parts of Europe like Germany, Italy and Poland actively supported the liberals demanding constitutional monarchy with national unification.
2. They too joined their demands for political rights’ like suffrage’ along with the struggle of the liberals. But in spite of their active participation, extension of political rights to them remained a controversial issue.
3. They took advantage of the unrest in Europe to push their demands for freedom of press and association and creation of a nation-state.
4. They even formed their own political associations and founded their newspapers.
5. They held political meetings and staged demonstrations to gain support to their demands. But they were denied suffrage rights during the assembly elections. When the Frankfurt parliament was being convened in the St Paul Church, they were granted admission merely as spectators.

Question.13. Who were the ‘liberals’? What ideas were supported by them?
Answer. Liberals were the people who demanded freedom and equality. The term liberalism was derive from the Latin root liber which meant ‘to be free’. They wanted to establish a constitutional and parliamentary government with national unification. They advocated freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. Liberals constituted of professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans.

The following ideas were supported by the Liberals:

1. They thought it necessary to create a nation-state on parliamentary principles. They emphasised on the concept of government by consent.
2. They demanded the formation of a national assembly and drafting of a constitution.
3. They firmly held the ideas of freedom of press and association.
4. They asserted that right to vote be granted only to men owning property.
5. They stressed on the idea of right to private property.

Question.14. What is the significance of 1848 for France and the rest of Europe? What did the liberals demand?
Answer. In 1848 Europe, the poor, unemployed workers and starving peasants led many revolts. In France, the educated middle class too started a revolution for the abolition of monarchy and establishment of a republic based on universal male suffrage. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to put forward their demands for the creation of a nation-state based on parliamentary principles with a constitution, freedom of press and association. Political rights for women was an issue in which large number of women took active part. They formed political associations and published newspapers voicing their demands.

Men and women from the liberal middle classes around Europe combined their demands for constitutionalism alongwith national unification.

Question.15. How did the Greek War of Independence mobilise nationalist feeling among the educated elite across Europe?
Answer. Greece was the part of Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.

1. The Greeks were influenced by the growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe and they started a struggle for their independence in 1821.
2. Nationalists in Greece got support from the Greeks residing in different countries.
3. Even the West European countries sympathised with the Greek and their ancient culture.
4. Poets and artists too admired Greece as the basis of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion in its support. English poet Lord Byron even organised fund and participated in the war.
5. Finally, in 1832, Greece was recognised as an independent nation by the Treaty of Constantinople.